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… laws normally provide for research exemptions. A research exemption is an exception to the exclusive rights granted by … (WIPO, 2009). The TRIPs Agreement provides for a research exemption. 8 However, this is of a permissive nature and there is no international obligation to include such exemption in national patent law. Therefore, research …

… to acts done: � privately and for non-commercial purposes (exemption for subsistence farmers); � for experimental purposes (the so-called research exemption); or � for the purpose of breeding other varieties (the so-called breeder’s exemption). 29 Since its adoption, the International …